The short version
SMART was not built on behavior science. Its "achievable" criterion runs against the finding that specific, challenging goals beat easy ones, and for new or complex behaviors, learning goals often fit better.
What a vision is about matters. Intrinsic aspirations (growth, relationships, community, health) are linked to better wellbeing than extrinsic ones (money, image, status).
Picturing a goal as already achieved can drain energy. Contrasting the wish with the obstacle works better.
If-then plans (implementation intentions) have a medium-to-large average effect on reaching goals.
What SMART leaves out
Most coaches learned SMART as the standard. Swann and colleagues (2023) reviewed its use in physical activity promotion and concluded that the acronym "is not based on scientific theory," is not consistent with the evidence, ignores what type of goal is set, has redundant criteria, is not used as originally intended, and carries a risk of harmful effects.
Goal-setting theory points in a different direction. In their summary of 35 years of research, Locke and Latham (2002) report that "specific, difficult goals consistently led to higher performance than urging people to do their best." The effect is strongest when people are committed to the goal and get feedback on progress. An "achievable" goal can quietly become an easy one.
Locke and Latham add 2 refinements that matter for health behavior. When a task is new or complex, performance goals can create anxiety, and "the antidote is to set specific challenging learning goals." And on complex tasks, breaking a distant goal into near-term subgoals helps people catch and correct mistakes.
SMART also says nothing about how a goal gets done. Bailey (2019) notes that SMART goals "do not specify how the goal will be implemented," and recommends adding: - Action plans that set where, when, and how, for about a week at a time. - Coping plans that anticipate barriers. Action plus coping plans work better than action plans alone. - A confidence check. If a client rates confidence below 7 out of 10, choose a more feasible plan. - Mastery and approach goals. Pair performance goals with goals about learning skills, and word goals as moving toward something rather than avoiding it.
Visions: the content matters
Goal contents theory, part of self-determination theory, separates intrinsic goals from extrinsic ones. Kasser and Ryan (1996) found that adults who put more weight on financial success, appearance, and social recognition reported lower vitality and more physical symptoms, while those who valued self-acceptance, relationships, community, and physical health reported higher wellbeing. These are correlations, not proof of cause, but they are a reason to listen to what a client's vision is built from. "Financial freedom" and an appearance goal are not neutral starting points.
Vision work itself has support. In a meta-analysis of 29 studies with 2,909 participants, Carrillo and colleagues (2019) found the Best Possible Self exercise (writing about yourself in your best possible future, after working hard toward it) improved wellbeing (d = .33), optimism (d = .33), and positive affect (d = .51) compared with controls.
From picture to plan
A vision lifts mood. A fantasy left on its own can stand in for action. Across 4 experiments, Kappes and Oettingen (2011) found that positive fantasies about an idealized future lowered energy, measured by systolic blood pressure and self-report, compared with fantasies that questioned the future or were negative or neutral. In the one study that measured follow-through, lower energy explained poorer self-reported accomplishment a week later. "Picture it already done," the core of the old intentions advice, is the move this research questions.
Mental contrasting fixes that: picture the wish, then picture the obstacle in present reality. Cross and Sheffield (2019) found a small-to-moderate effect on health behavior (g = 0.28 up to 4 weeks; g = 0.38 up to 3 months, in 5 studies). Combining it with if-then plans gave a similar effect (g = 0.28). In the few studies that compared them, adding if-then plans did not strengthen the effect further, and the authors say more studies are needed.
If-then plans have the strongest base. Gollwitzer and Sheeran (2006) pooled 94 independent tests and found a medium-to-large effect on goal attainment (d = .65). The plans helped people get started, stay on track despite distractions, and let go of approaches that weren't working.
Using it with clients
A sequence that follows the evidence: values, then vision, then the wish, the best outcome, the obstacle, and the plan. The client chooses the goal at every step.
Vision: "When you picture yourself a year from now, living the way you want to, what's different? What makes that matter to you?"
Obstacle: "What's most likely to get in the way, especially from inside you?"
If-then plan: "So if it's 6 p.m. and you're too tired to cook, then what will you do?"
Confidence: "On a scale of 0 to 10, how confident are you in that plan?" Below 7, shrink it together.
When a behavior is new, offer a learning goal. For example, a client unsure how to fit movement into shift work might choose to try 3 different times of day and notice which one sticks, instead of committing to a fixed number of sessions. Revisit the vision often, and let it change as the client does.
Where coaching stops
The client sets the goal, but some goals belong to a clinician. Coaches don't set nutrient targets, servings, or exercise prescriptions. If a client's goal needs one, the client can work it out with their physician or registered dietitian. If a client wants a weight goal, explore it inside a weight-inclusive frame and shift attention to behaviors and wellbeing. If goal setting turns rigid, punishing, or tied to disordered eating, refer to a mental health professional.
Go deeper
Planning skills are part of the Advanced Motivational Interviewing package, in development. Advanced Skills Through Cases, also in development, works through these steps with realistic client situations.
References
Bailey, R. R. (2019). Goal setting and action planning for health behavior change. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 13(6), 615–618. https://doi.org/10.1177/1559827617729634
Carrillo, A., Rubio-Aparicio, M., Molinari, G., Enrique, Á., Sánchez-Meca, J., & Baños, R. M. (2019). Effects of the Best Possible Self intervention: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS ONE, 14(9), e0222386. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222386
Cross, A., & Sheffield, D. (2019). Mental contrasting for health behaviour change: A systematic review and meta-analysis of effects and moderator variables. Health Psychology Review, 13(2), 209–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2019.1594332
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Sheeran, P. (2006). Implementation intentions and goal achievement: A meta-analysis of effects and processes. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 69–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(06)38002-1
Kappes, H. B., & Oettingen, G. (2011). Positive fantasies about idealized futures sap energy. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47(4), 719–729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.02.003
Kasser, T., & Ryan, R. M. (1996). Further examining the American dream: Differential correlates of intrinsic and extrinsic goals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(3), 280–287. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167296223006
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57(9), 705–717. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.57.9.705
Swann, C., Jackman, P. C., Lawrence, A., Hawkins, R. M., Goddard, S. G., Williamson, O., Schweickle, M. J., Vella, S. A., Rosenbaum, S., & Ekkekakis, P. (2023). The (over)use of SMART goals for physical activity promotion: A narrative review and critique. Health Psychology Review, 17(2), 211–226. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2021.2023608
